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André Michaux

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André Michaux
Born(1746-03-08)8 March 1746
Satory, Versailles, France
Died11 October 1802(1802-10-11) (aged 56)
Tamatave (Toamasina), Madagascar
CitizenshipFrench
ChildrenFrançois André Michaux
Scientific career
FieldsBotany
Academic advisorsBernard de Jussieu
Author abbrev. (botany)Michx.

André Michaux (Pronounced → ahn-dray mee-show; sometimes anglicised as Andrew Michaud; 8 March 1746 – 11 October 1802)[1] was a French botanist and explorer. He is most noted for his study of North American flora. In addition Michaux collected specimens in England, Spain, France, and even Persia. His work was part of a larger European effort to gather knowledge about the natural world. Michaux's contributions include Histoire des chênes de l'Amérique (1801; "The Oaks of North America") and Flora Boreali-Americana (1803; "The Flora of North America") which continued to be botanical references well into the 19th century. His son, François André Michaux, also became an authoritative botanist.[2][3]

Biography

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Historical marker off Aviation Ave in North Charleston, South Carolina

Michaux was born in Satory, part of Versailles, Yvelines, where his father managed farmland on the king's estate. Michaux was trained in the agricultural sciences in anticipation of his one-day assuming his father's duties, and received a basic classical 18th century education, including Latin and some Greek, until he was fourteen.[4] In 1769, he married Cecil Claye, the daughter of a prosperous farmer; she died a year later giving birth to their son, François André. Michaux then took up the study of botany and became a student of Bernard de Jussieu. In 1779 he spent time studying botany in England, and in 1780 he explored Auvergne, the Pyrenees and northern Spain. In 1782 he was sent by the French government as secretary to the French consul on a botanical mission to Persia. His journey began unfavourably, as he was robbed of all his equipment except his books; but he gained influential support in Persia after curing the shah of a dangerous illness. After two years he returned to France with a fine herbarium, and also introduced numerous Eastern plants into the botanical gardens of France.[5]

Title page of Flora Boreali-Americana: sistens characteres plantarum, Volume 1

André Michaux was appointed by Louis XVI as Royal botanist under the General Director of the Bâtiments du Roi and sent to the United States in 1785 with an annual salary of 2000 livres, to make the first organized investigation of plants that could be of value in French building and carpentry, medicine and agriculture. He traveled with his son François André Michaux (1770–1855) through Canada and the United States. In 1786, Michaux attempted to establish a horticultural garden of thirty acres in Bergen's Wood on the Hudson Palisades near Hackensack, New Jersey.[6][7] The garden, overseen by Pierre-Paul Saunier from the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, who had emigrated with Michaux, failed because of the harsh winters. In 1787, Michaux established and maintained for a decade a botanical garden of 111 acres near what is now Aviation Avenue in North Charleston, South Carolina, from which he made many expeditions to various parts of North America.[8] Michaux described and named many North American species during this time. Between 1785 and 1791 he shipped ninety cases of plants and many seeds to France. At the same time he introduced many species to America from various parts of the world, including Camellia, tea-olive, and crepe myrtle.

Proposed expedition that almost happened

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Brachystemum miticum by Pierre-Joseph Redouté from Flora Boreali-Americana

After the collapse of the French monarchy, André Michaux, who was a royal botanist, lost his source of income. He solicited support for an American funded Exploration under the auspices of the American Philosophical Society.

In 1793, a decade before the Lewis and Clark Expedition, with no federal funding available, David Rittenhouse (1732–1796), President of the American Philosophical Society asked Thomas Jefferson to draft a "subscription list" to raise funds to Explore the interior of North America, from the Mississippi River along the Missouri, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. Jefferson personally drew it up and secured 30 signatures, himself included, of influential, wealthy supporters, pledging various amounts to finance it:[9]

  1. U.S. President George Washington (1789–1797)
  2. Vice President John Adams (1797–1801)
  3. U.S. Senator from North Carolina Benjamin Hawkins (1754–1816)
  4. U.S. Senator from South Carolina Ralph Izard (1741–1804)
  5. Former U.S. Senator from North Carolina James Johnston (1742–1805)
  6. U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania Robert Morris (1734–1806)
  7. U.S. Senator from Maryland John Henry (Maryland politician) (1750–1798)
  8. U.S. Senator from Massachusetts George Cabot (1751–1823)
  10. U.S. Senator from New Jersey John Rutherford (born around 1760–1840)[a]
  11. U.S. Secretary of War Henry Knox (1750–1806)
  12. U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809)
  13. U.S. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton (1757–1804)
  14. U.S. Senator from New York Rufus King (1755–1827)
  15. Former New Hampshire President John Langdon (1741–1819)
  16. U.S. Senator from Kentucky John Edwards (1748–1837)
  17. U.S. Senator from Kentucky John Brown (1757–1837)
  18. 1st Governor of Pennsylvania Thomas Mifflin (1744–1800)
  19. U.S. Congressman from Connecticut Jonathan Trumbull, Jr. (1740–1809)
  20. U.S. Congressman from Virginia James Madison (1809–1817)
  21. Former Delegate for South Carolina to the Confederation Congress and the Lawyer from Charleston, South Carolina John Parker (1759–1832)
  22. U.S. Congressman from Virginia Alexander White (1738–1804)
  23. U.S. Congressman from Virginia John Page (1743–1808)
  24. U.S. Congressman from North Carolina John Baptista Ashe (1748–1802)
  25. Former U.S. Congressman from Maryland William Smith (1728–1814)
  26. U.S. Congressman from Connecticut Jeremiah Wadsworth (1743–1804)
  27. U.S. Congressman from Virginia Richard Bland Lee (1761–1827)
  28. Pennsylvania State Representative Thomas Fitzsimons (1741–1811)
  29. U.S. Congressman from Virginia Samuel Griffin (1746–1810)
  30. U.S. Congressman from Virginia William Branch Giles (1762–1830)
  31. U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania John Wilkes Kittera (1752–1801)

Jefferson personally drafted the instructions (aka prospectus) for Michaux to lead the project.[10] At the time Michaux's exploration was proposed, Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809) – an 18-year-old protégé of Jefferson – asked to be included, but was turned down by Jefferson. According to presidential historian Michael Edward Purdy (1954–2023), the "subscription list" stands as the only document of any kind signed by the first four presidents: Washington, Jefferson, Adams, and Madison.

Before Michaux was scheduled to begin, however, he volunteered to assist the French Minister to America, Edmond-Charles Genet. Genet was promoting American support for France's wars with Britain and Spain, aggravating relations between all four nations. George Rogers Clark offered to organize and lead a militia force to capture Louisiana from the Spanish. Michaux's mission was to evaluate Clark's plan and coordinate between Clark's actions and Genet's. Michaux went to Kentucky, but, without adequate funds, Clark was unable to raise the militia and the plan eventually folded.

Ultimately, the expedition never took place.

It is not true, as sometimes reported, that Thomas Jefferson ordered Michaux to leave the United States after he learned of his involvement with Genet.[11] Though Jefferson did not support Genet's actions, he was aware of Genet's instructions for Michaux and even provided Michaux with letters of introduction to the Governor of Kentucky.[12]

On his return to France in 1796 he was shipwrecked, however most of his specimens survived. His two American gardens declined. Saunier, his salary unpaid, cultivated potatoes and hay and paid taxes on the New Jersey property, which is now still remembered as "The Frenchman's Garden", part of Machpelah Cemetery in North Bergen.

In 1800, Michaux sailed with Nicolas Baudin's expedition to Australia, but left the ship in Mauritius. During the expedition, Michaux was accompanied by an African slave he owned named Merlot.[13] Michaux then went to Madagascar to investigate the flora of that island.[5] Michaux died at Tamatave in Madagascar of a tropical fever at around 9 a.m. on 11 October 1802.[1] His work as a botanist was chiefly done in the field, and he added largely to what was previously known of the botany of the East and of America.[5]

In 1800, on his visit to the United States, Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours, concerned about the abandoned botanical gardens, wrote to the Institut de France, who sent over Michaux's son François André Michaux to sell the properties. He sold the garden near Charleston, but the concern expressed by Du Pont and his son Eleuthère Irénée du Pont preserved the New Jersey garden in Saunier's care and continued to support it. Saunier continued to send seeds to France for the rest of his life, and is credited with introducing into gardens the chinquapin (Castanea pumila) and the smoking bean tree (Catalpa bignonioides).[14]

Aaron Burr recorded meeting Michaux in Paris on September 17, 1810, but this was apparently Francois Andre Michaux, the son. According to Burr he went "to Michaux's, the botanist, who was many years in the United States, and has written a valuable little book of his travels. He is now publishing his account of our trees, which will be extremely interesting. It demonstrates that we (not the whole continent, but the United States alone) have three times the number of useful trees that Europe can boast..." Burr's cited quote would apply equally to both Michaux', father and son, and perhaps more to the son, who had been in America a total of some 6 years, and had recently (1804) written about his travels in America, and was subsequently working on his later opus on American trees.

Babylonian Caillou Michaux or Michaux Stone, Bibliothèque Nationale collection.

Legacy

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  • Carolina lily (Lilium michauxii), Michaux's saxifrage (Saxifraga michauxii), and several other plants are named for him.
  • Michaux State Forest in Pennsylvania (U.S.), which protects over 344 square kilometers (over 85,000 acres), is named for him.
  • André-Michaux Ecological Reserve in Quebec, Canada, which protects 450 hectares, is named for him.
  • His son François André Michaux published an Histoire des arbres forestiers de l'Amérique septentrionale. 3 vols. C. d'Hautel; 1810–1813 (Charles-Louis d'Hautel; 1780–1843)[b] with 156 plates, of which an English translation appeared in 1817–1819 as The North American Sylva.[5]
  • Michaux Stone — Michaux brought a boundary stone or kudurru back from his Near Eastern trip. It was originally found by a French physician living in Baghdad, near the site of a 12th-century BCE Babylonian town named Bak-da-du. On a small part of an embankment on the Tigris—near the Al-Karkh end of the Baab El-Maudham Bridge—is another archeological site attributed to the second Babylonian period, circa 600 BCE. Michaux sold the kudurru to the "Institute Constituting the Commission for Scientific Travel and the Custodians of the Museum of Antiquities in France in 1800, for 1200 francs. The 'Michaux stone' or Caillou Michaux was then placed in the Cabinet des Médailles of the Bibliothèque Nationale at that time.

Writings

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Michaux wrote two valuable works on North American plants:

  • Michaux, André (1746–1802) (1801) [first published May 1801]. Histoire des chênes de l'Amérique, ou, Descriptions et figures de toutes les espèces et variétés de chênes de l'Amérique septentrionale, considérées sous les rapports de la botanique, de leur culture et de leur usage [The Oaks of North America, or, Descriptions and Figures of All the Species and Varieties of Oaks of North America, Considered in Relation to Botany, Their Cultivation and Their Use] (36 plates) (in French). Paris: de l'Imprimerie de Chapelet. Year 9 of the French Revolutionary Calendar.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Retrieved July 11, 2024. OCLC 6039463 (all editions).
    1. Via Internet Archive (Austrian National Library). Crapelet. 1801. Free access icon
    1. Vol. 1. 1803 – via Internet Archive (Missouri Botanical Garden). Free access icon
    2. Vol. 1 – via Google Books (Lyon Public Library). Free access icon
    3. Vol. 2 – via Google Books (Austrian National Library). Free access icon

Flora Boreali-Americana was first published on March 19, 1803 – five months, one week, and one day after the death of André Michaux. Given that it was published posthumously, scholars had expressed doubt over whether Michaux was the only author – some suspected that French botanist Louis Claude Marie Richard (1754–1821) and the younger Michaux should have been credited. In 2004, American botanist James Lauritz Reveal (1941–2015) asserted:[5][15]

Richard heavily edited and revised the text drafted by the elder Michaux and saw to its publication, following the general dictates of the younger Michaux but without his direct supervision. There is no question that Richard played a major role, as a friendly editor, but at no time, to my knowledge, did the elder Richard ever assume credit for the publication of Michaux's Flora Boreali-Americana.

Illustrators and engravers

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Flora Boreali-Americana has 36 engraved plates (numbered 1–36). Thirty-two are from drawings by Pierre Joseph Redouté (wikidata Q551638) (Austrian Netherlands → present-day Belgium; 1759–1840) and 4 are from drawings by his younger brother, Henry Joseph Redouté (fr) (Austrian Netherlands → present-day Belgium; 1766–1852). Auguste Plée (1787–1825) engraved 33 of the plates and Louis Sellier (1757–c.1835) engraved 3. Auguste was the father of engravers Victoire Plée and François P. Plée (1800–1864). Louis was the son of engraver François Noël Sellier (1737–1782). (LCCN; no98129859)

The standard author abbreviation Michx. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.[16]

See also

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Bibliography

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Annotations

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  1. ^ Not to be confused with John Rutherford, Sr. (1755–1841), of North Carolina, who lived on a plantation on the Catawba River, near the mouth of Muddy Creek, whose house André Michaux slept at on July 29, 1794. ("Portions of the Journal of André Michaux". 1889)
  2. ^ Charles-Louis d'Hautel (1780–1843) – Paris bookseller and publisher at rue de La Harpe, n°. 80 – surrendered his printing license (imprimeur breveté) April 30, 1823, in favor of Paris-born Alexandre-Noël Marchand Du Breuil (1797–1864), but continued as licensed bookseller (libraire breveté) until 1930. A.-N. Marchand Du Breuil was the younger brother of historian and prefect Charles-François Marchand Du Breuil (1794–1834), author of:
    Du Breuil, Charles François Marchand (1827). Journées Mémorables de la Révolution Française [Memorable Days of the French Revolution] (11 vols.) (1st ed.). Paris: Published by Audin. Printed by A.-N. Marchand Du Breuil – via Google Books (Library of Catalonia). Free access icon OCLC 682534381 (all editions).
    D'Hautel had been a Paris bookseller since 1805, or shortly before. D'Hautel became a printer-bookseller by associating around 1808 with the printer Louis Haussmann (1781–1837). D'Hautel became a licensed (i) bookseller October 1, 1812 (and renewed his license March 15, 1817) and (ii) printer April 14, 1813 (and renewed October 15, 1816) in succession to his former partner L. Haussmann. Ange-Hippolyte May (1808–1891) succeeded d'Hautel as bookseller April 5, 1830. Louis Haussmann, by way of his grandparents – Christian Haussmann (1716–1790) and Barbara Marguerite Buob (maiden; 1721–1793) – was a 1st cousin, 1 time removed, of Georges-Eugène Haussmann (1809–1891).

Notes

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  1. ^ a b Pluchet, December 2004, pp. 228–232.
  2. ^ Williams, October 1999.
  3. ^ Savage & Savage, 1986.
  4. ^ Michaux, 1889, pp. 2–3.
  5. ^ a b c d e Chisholm, 1911, pp. 361–362.
  6. ^ Sanders & Anderson, 1999, p. 29.
  7. ^ Mitchell Kunkle, 1916, p. 104.
  8. ^ Cothran, 1995, pp. 6–7.
  9. ^ Jefferson, 1793.
  10. ^ Jefferson, April 30, 1793.
  11. ^ Spero, September 17, 2014.
  12. ^ Williams, 2004, pp. 98–106.
  13. ^ Robertson, 2022, pp. 103–124.
  14. ^ Robbins & Howson, August 27, 1958, p. 351–370.
  15. ^ Reveal, December 2004, pp. 22–68.
  16. ^ International Plant Names Index.  Michx.

Inline references

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    1. Via Wikisource. Free access icon
    2. Via Internet Archive. 1911. Free access icon
    1. Via Google Books (limited preview).
    1. Manuscript.
      Original source: Catanzariti, John, ed. (1992). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson Vol. 25, 1 January – 10 May 1793. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 624–626. JSTOR j.ctv346qmc (Vol. 25); ISBN 978-0-6911-8530-9, 0-6911-8530-1; OCLC 1043843969.
      1. Transcription.
    1. Via Internet Archive (Cal Berkeley). Philadelphia, Press of MacCalla & co. 1889. Free access icon
    2. Via Google Books (Illinois). Free access icon
    1. Via Google Books (limited preview). Free access icon
    1. JSTOR: 26797057. JSTOR 26797057.
    2. doi: Reveal, James L. (December 2004). "10.2179/0008-7475(2004)sp2[22:NMIAIT]2.0.CO;2". Castanea. 69 (sp2): 22–68. doi:10.2179/0008-7475(2004)sp2[22:NMIAIT]2.0.CO;2 – via BioOne.
    1. Via Google Books (limited preview).

General references

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    1. Online ed.. Free access icon
    2. Via Internet Archive. 1966.
      3. See Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Hoeniger was a scholar who, among other things, researched this history of natural science, especially 19th century botany and exploration. She a faculty member of the Department of Microbiology, University of Toronto. Her husband, Frederick David Julius Hoeniger (1921–2016) was a Shakespearian scholar at the University of Toronto. She was the sister of Canadian Army War Hero Denis Whitaker (1915–1901).

More sources

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  • Works by or about André Michaux at the Internet Archive
  • Michaux, F. Andrew (François André) (1777–1855). Histoire des Arbres Forestiers de l'Amérique Septentrionale: Considérés Principalement sous les Rapports de Leur Usage dans les Arts et de Leur Introduction dans le Commerce, Ainsi que d'Après les Avantages qu'Ils Peuvent Offrir aux Gouvernemens en Europe et aux Personnes Qui Veulent Former de Grandes Plantations [History of the Forest Trees of North America: Considered Mainly in Relation to Their Use in the Arts and Their Introduction Into Commerce, as Well as From the Advantages Which They Can Offer to Governments in Europe and to People Who Want to Form Large Plantations] (in French).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    L. Haussmann and d'Hautel, Paris (3 Vols.)
    1. Vol. 1. 1810 – via Google Books (Harvard). Free access icon
    2. Vol. 2. Paris, Impr. de C. Haussmann et d'Hautel. 1811 – via Internet Archive (Harvard). Free access icon
    L. Haussmann, Paris (3 Vols.)
    1. Vol. 2. 1812 – via Google Books (Lyon). Free access icon
    2. Vol. 1. 1813. ISBN 978-0-665-53756-1 – via Internet Archive (Alberta). Free access icon
    3. Vol. 2. 1813 – via Google Books (Harvard). Free access icon
    4. Vol. 3. 1813 – via HathiTrust (Astor Library). Free access icon
    5. Vol. 3. 1813 – via Google Books (Austria). Free access icon
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